Thanks to AI tools and other technology, the scammers and manipulators have reached a new level of sophistication. We used to worry about whether an information source was biased or up-to-date. Now we have to ask whether it’s real.

What’s The Problem?

Information is becoming easier to distort, and fakes are becoming harder to spot. But these distortions and fakes are easy to spread, and they show up in a few different ways:

Misinformation – False or inaccurate information that’s shared without the intent to deceive. Think of a well-meaning person forwarding a social media post that turns out to be wrong or an editor missing a few mistakes. No malice, just error.

Disinformation – False information that is deliberately created and spread to deceive. Someone behind disinformation knows it’s false and wants you to believe it anyway. It’s used in influence campaigns, corporate sabotage, and fraud, and it’s strategic.

Deepfakes – Audio, video, or images, generally created with the help of AI tools that easily manipulate facial expressions, replace faces, or synthesize speech. You might see a fake CEO pitching a fraudulent investment or Taylor Swift endorsing Donald Trump for president. The technology has come a long way, and what once required significant resources can now be produced with free tools.

And here’s where the lines blur: disinformation campaigns increasingly use deepfakes as their delivery mechanism. A piece of disinformation wrapped in a convincing video is far more persuasive than a text post. And misinformation? Sometimes it starts with a deepfake that someone shares in good faith, not knowing it wasn’t real.

Why This Matters

If your work depends on gathering facts, verifying identities, or reconstructing events, misinformation, disinformation, and deepfakes are a big problem. Consider the ways we rely on news articles, social media posts, and video footage. Any of it can now be compromised in ways that weren’t possible a few years ago, and it makes our jobs more complicated.

What Can We Do?

In this new information environment, we need to be even more diligent about sources and how we evaluate and report our findings. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

• Verify the source before you trust the content. Don’t just evaluate what a source says. Evaluate whether the source itself is legitimate. Check domain registration dates, look for an editorial history, and cross-reference claims with multiple independent outlets.
• Be skeptical, especially of anything emotionally charged. Misinformation and disinformation tend to exploit strong emotions. If a piece of content makes you react on an emotional level, pause before you act on it.
• Apply deepfake detection to any high-stakes video or audio. Learn about the latest tools for flagging AI-generated content, and check what other sources are reporting on the topic.
• Go to primary sources whenever possible. Court records, official filings, and regulatory databases can be verified at the source, and you can opt for certified copies, if needed. Remember that the further you get from a primary source, the more chance for distortion, intentional or not.
• Document your sourcing. Before delivering your findings to a client, document not just what you found, but where you found it and how you verified it. Not every client needs or wants all that info in their report, but I like having it handy in case anyone asks.

Misinformation confuses, disinformation deceives, and deepfakes distort. Together, they don’t just complicate investigations, they redefine them. Our value as investigators lies in knowing what’s fake and what’s real.

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When you’re conducting research and investigations, it’s easy to get sidetracked by opinions, expectations, and wishful thinking. Sometimes we hope for or have too much invested in a particular outcome. Other times, we rely on our usual tools and techniques and don’t consider their limitations.

The technical term is cognitive bias, and it means that our assumptions and beliefs affect how we process or interpret our findings. It means that we alter our judgments based on these biases, and it distorts the truth.

When you’re conducting research or an investigation, it’s important to park your biases and proceed with an open mind. We’re not there to judge or prove anyone else’s point. We need to focus on the facts. And we can’t do our best when opinions get in the way.

What are some of the most common cognitive biases that you might encounter when you’re gathering information for research and investigations, and what can you do to avoid them? Here are just five that might come into play:

1. Confirmation bias – Favoring information that conforms to our opinion or hypothesis and discounting what doesn’t

We’re not here to prove what our clients want us to prove. We’re not here to judge the information we find, except for its authenticity and reliability. Just gather and report the facts, adding context as appropriate.

2. Anchoring bias – Relying too heavily on the first piece of information that we find

We all do it. We get excited when we finally find something useful and base the rest of the investigation on that one piece. While we need to follow leads, spend a little more time on gathering those initial facts before making changes in direction.

3. Automation bias – Over-reliance on automated tools and not verifying through manual methods

Comprehensive reports, packaged due diligence, online court record systems, software for mining social media, and other tools save time, but they’re a starting point. It’s just raw data that needs to be analyzed and verified, often through boots-on-the-ground research.

4. Overconfidence bias – Overestimating our ability or knowledge in a particular area

Research and investigations are mostly specialized these days, and you can’t do it all. I’ll never be able to take on surveillance cases, and even some research, like verifying patents, is best left to the experts.

5. Bias blind spot – Recognizing the effect of bias in the judgment of others but not in ourselves

Yes, it can can happen to any of us. We’re only human, and our own biases can get in the way. Take stock of how you approach your research, and stay aware throughout the process.

Don’t taint your research and investigations with cognitive biases. Remember to keep an open mind, gather as many perspectives as you can, and explore the possibilities. Keep expanding your toolkit, and never rely on just one source. Verify everything, and build your network of experts. It’s the only way to keep those biases from interfering with finding and reporting the truth.

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But sometimes we expect too much from these records, so it’s important to understand that they have their limits. Here’s a look at some of the things that you typically won’t find in a business registration filing:

The answers to all your questions

Business registrations can provide clues and perhaps answers to some of your questions, such as where a company is registered, the names of the registered agent, and other bits of data, but think of them as more of a starting point for additional research rather than having THE answer.

Future plans

Business registrations cover the past and the present—incorporation date, director changes, status, and the like. You won’t find strategic plans, expansion goals, or projections for future performance. These forward-looking statements are typically found in separate business plans or investor presentations.

Internal disputes or litigation history

While major legal events might be disclosed in SEC filings, court records, news reports, or other public channels, routine internal disputes or minor litigation cases are not typically found within standard business registration documents.

Day-to-day operational details

Business filings primarily focus on legal structure and compliance. You won’t find granular information about daily operations, such as marketing strategies, supply chain logistics, or internal management practices. These details are considered internal affairs and are generally not public information.

Comprehensive financial data

You definitely won’t find detailed financials like income statements, balance sheets, or cash flow reports. These private documents are usually for internal use, tax purposes, or reporting to specific regulatory bodies in certain industries.

Trade secrets and intellectual property

Businesses often rely on proprietary information, such as formulas, processes, and customer lists to maintain a competitive edge, and you’ll never find that in registration filings. Also, details about patents and trademarks are are registered separately with intellectual property offices, not within general business filings.

Detailed ownership breakdown

While filings generally identify the owners or key members of a business (but not always!), the exact percentage of ownership or equity distribution is not usually included. You might be able to uncover this information through other sources, though.

Specific business locations

In most jurisdictions the registered business address is included in the registration record, but filings may not list all the locations where a business operates. This is especially true for companies with multiple branches or facilities.

Employee information

Business registration filings do not include details about employees beyond perhaps listing the directors or registered agents. Employee salaries, positions, or personal data is often confidential, but might be found through competitive intelligence.

Management biographies

Filings might list the names and addresses of directors and officers, but you won’t find detailed biographies or employment histories. This information could be available through other sources like LinkedIn or company websites, but it’s not a standard component of registration filings.

If you’re relying on business registrations for your research or investigations, it’s important to understand their limitations. Remember that they’re a great starting point and will offer clues for additional research and analysis.

Learn more about what business registrations do include, their challenges, and tips for research through one of my online courses.

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In the first case, when faced with a known topic, we have our standard sources, and we usually know where to start. Every so often, though, we’re working with a client in a new industry, or maybe we’re starting to work in a new one. In these cases, we’re in unfamiliar territory, and we don’t know where to start. What can we do?

In these situations, we have two goals:

1. Gather some background information
2. Identify the key resources

But, how do we accomplish these tasks when we’ve never done this type of research? How do we navigate this new information landscape?

First, it’s worth noting that–like most kinds of research–we won’t find answers in just one place. And Google can only go just so far.

Researching a new topic requires a process, one that takes us to multiple places, gradually discovering new information and/or clues about where to find new information. It’s about piecing our findings together to come up with the best, most reliable starting points for new research.

After spending a little time with Google or other general purpose search engine, it’s a good idea to visit some other sources that can help us learn about new topics and identify starting points for research.

Here are some of my current favorites to use when I’m researching a new topic:

Wikipedia – Yes, I know its limitations for deeper research, but for a top-level view of a new topic and maybe some leads to new sources, Wikipedia does the job well. Of course, results depend on the subject and the amount of interest, so sometimes there’s not much there. Again, it’s just one of many places to look, so keep going.

LibGuides – University librarians like to create topical research or study guides, sometimes called LibGuides. They often contain links only available to their students, but many include open sources (recommended by a university librarian!) and a brief overview of the topic. Look for these guides by searching something like this:

[your topic] library (guide OR libguide) site:edu

Generative AI – As professional researchers, we need to use ChatGPT and other GenAI tools wisely. One thing they’re good for is creating a list of authoritative sources that cover a particular topic–keeping in mind that GenAI tools have their limitations and should be used in combination with other sources.

Associations – One of the first questions to ask when researching a new topic is “Who cares?” Who cares enough to compile information on a particular topic and talk about it? Professional associations do, and their websites often include blogs, articles, and lists of experts. If it’s not online, a phone call could speed up the process.

Our networks – Connections that we’ve created and nurtured over time through LinkedIn and in-person meetings offer a wealth of information about all kinds of topics. Most connections are happy to share what they know and can be especially helpful with emerging industries or other topics that may not have a lot of online coverage.

Researching a new topic is more involved than those times when we have some experience. Try these resources for a top-level view and some starting points for research. Let me know how they work for you and if you have any others to add to the list.

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As with all types of public records, though, this useful resource comes with lots of challenges, and, to work effectively, we need to learn what those are and how to work around them. First, I’ll talk about the challenges you’ll likely encounter working with business registrations, and then I’ll get to the solutions:

You need to know where to look
In the U.S., these records are kept at the state level, which means that you need to know where the business is registered. Sometimes you don’t have that information, so the best source is one that collects records from multiple jurisdictions. The problem is that these aggregated databases often make mistakes, so you’ll likely encounter missing records and data-entry errors.

The information is self-reported
Self-reported company information can be unreliable, because no one is checking for omissions or altered facts. And, since companies report only what’s required, and sometimes not at all, the data can be bare-bones at best.

Lack of transparency
While many places provide full records online, some make it more difficult and limit access. Also, certain jurisdictions don’t include much information in the filings. In the U.S., for example, some states allow the use of just a registered agent instead of listing owners, directors, or shareholders, and we even see registrations without business addresses.

Limited coverage and availability
As with all public records, the database may not include everything. Some limit inactive records to just the past 12 months, and older documents may not be in digital format. Each jurisdiction sets the rules, so everything varies by location.

Limited search capabilities
Some states allow you to search by company name, address, directors, or other advanced options, but others may not. You’ll often see basic searching by company name only, making it difficult to find, for example, all companies in which an individual is involved.

How can you make the most of these challenges when working with business registration records?

• As with any type of research, know your sources and when to use them. Go directly to the Secretary of State’s website if you are looking for a specific company name and know where they operate. If not, and you’re casting a wide net, take advantage of the aggregated sources, but make sure you’re aware of their limitations.
• Verify everything. If you’re using an aggregator, always verify these records with the Secretary of State or other direct source. Even direct sources contain errors, so do some additional public records and media research.
• Remember that one source won’t answer all your questions or tell the full story, so use these registration records as a starting point or to fill in some blanks. Look for clues and then expand your search. Google addresses and names to identify connections and keep going from there.
• Manage expectations. Like any public records, results will vary, so make sure you and your clients are aware of what’s available, what’s missing, and any issues with the data.

Business registrations help us gather intelligence about people and companies. Like all public records, you’ll get better results if you learn what challenges they offer and how to work around them.

What issues and solutions would you add to these lists?

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The technical term is cognitive bias, and it means that our assumptions and beliefs affect how we process or interpret our findings. It means that we alter our judgments based on these biases, and it distorts the truth.

When you’re conducting research or an investigation, it’s important to park your biases and proceed with an open mind. We’re not there to judge or prove anyone else’s point. We need to focus on the facts. And we can’t do our best when opinions get in the way.

What are some of the most common cognitive biases that you might encounter when you’re gathering information for research and investigations, and what can you do to avoid them? Here are just five that might come into play:

1. Confirmation bias – Favoring information that conforms to our opinion or hypothesis and discounting what doesn’t
We’re not here to prove what our clients want us to prove. We’re not here to judge the information we find, except for its authenticity and reliability. Just gather and report the facts, adding context as appropriate.

2. Anchoring bias – Relying too heavily on the first piece of information that we find
We all do it. We get excited when we finally find something useful and base the rest of the investigation on that one piece. While we need to follow leads, spend a little more time on gathering those initial facts before making changes in direction.

3. Automation bias – Over-reliance on automated tools and not verifying through manual methods
Comprehensive reports, packaged due diligence, online court record systems, software for mining social media, and other tools save time, but they’re a starting point. It’s just raw data that needs to be analyzed and verified, often through boots-on-the-ground research.

4. Overconfidence bias – Overestimating our ability or knowledge in a particular area
A lot of research and investigations is specialized these days, and you can’t do it all. I’ll never be able to take on surveillance cases, and even some research, like verifying patents, is best left to the experts.

5. Bias blind spot – Recognizing the effect of bias in the judgment of others but not in ourselves
Yes, it can can happen to any of us. We’re only human, and our own biases can get in the way. Take stock of how you approach your research, and stay aware throughout the process.

Don’t taint your research and investigations with cognitive biases. Keep an open mind, gather as many perspectives as you can, and explore the possibilities. Expand your toolkit, and never rely on just one source. Verify everything, and build your network of experts. It’s the only way to keep those biases from interfering with finding and reporting the truth.

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If your plans include some self-improvement or professional development, you might consider working on your information skills. After all, we live in information-rich times, with answers to our questions available to us in ways that they’ve never been before. We use this information to make decisions, complete our projects, and learn, yet we often go about it haphazardly. In life and in business–in a world of misinformation, disinformation, and deep fakes–it’s a dangerous way to go.

What if you could find, use, and share information more efficiently and effectively? It’s about getting to the answers you need, without veering off course or missing something important. That’s where those information skills come in handy, and I’ve previously posted about The Big6, a six-step framework for improving information literacy. In this post I’ll go into more detail about the first of the six steps, defining your task.

As any professional researcher, investigator, or librarian knows, you can’t start looking until you have a good idea of what you’re looking for, and sometimes that isn’t entirely clear. In this first step of your research process, before you open a database or Google, define the task by answering these two questions:

1. What do I need to know?
2. What types of information do I need?

And, of course, that leads to more questions. Here’s what this process might look like for a private investigator. If you’re not a PI, consider how it might work for your research:

What do I need to know?

What are my client’s key questions? – Every client has their questions. While these may eventually change, it’s important to remember them and work with this foundation–but they are just a starting point.

Understand the “Why” – This is an important one for investigators, because clients have ulterior motives. Also, knowing what’s really important–what problems they are trying to solve–can help you reframe the key questions.

What information do I already have? – Note any supplied information. Maybe personal identifiers, results of previous research. Don’t waste time searching for what you already know and use these clues for leads to more info, but never rely on their accuracy.

Do I know how the information will be used? – Not only does this help narrow your focus, it will guide you when creating the report. Does the client like to dive into the details, or will the highlights do? Will it be used in court?

What’s the budget and time frame? – This will help manage expectations and give you a good stopping point. You’ll need this info when working out the scope and which sources you can use.

Where does this research fit in the process? – Understanding the bigger picture will lead to a better understanding of the ultimate question or task. For due diligence, if it’s early in the process, we may not dig as deep as we would later on, when our client’s ready to close the deal.

What type of information do I need?

Are you looking for fact or opinion? – While both have their uses, you want to clarify early on and clearly note in your reports.

Is this information in the public domain? – Not everything is public, and even “public records” aren’t always available. This is also a good time for checking that expectations match budget and time frame–and your ethics.

What’s the required format for delivering documents? – Do you need certified copies? What are the rules about screenshots, time stamps, and file formats? Asking the right person during this first step will save a lot of problems later in the process.

To set yourself up for success this year–no matter where you’re headed–commit to a strategic approach to finding and using information, starting with defining your task.

Wishing y’all lots of success and good research in 2023!

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When I say “information skills” I mean those skills we need to solve problems or answer questions so we can take action. It doesn’t matter what you’re doing, you know how important it is to have the right kind of information at the right time. From professional development to business strategy to learning a new hobby or solving a family crisis.

Back in the library, we called it “information literacy.” I’ve used “information skills” or “research skills” a lot since my library days, avoiding the older term, thinking it a bit too technical and maybe a little scary. People get defensive when you insinuate that they may be illiterate. But perhaps it’s actually about becoming more literate. Especially with easy access to more information than ever, most of it questionable.

We can all improve. Even those of us who call ourselves professionals. We all need a little help with avoiding bad data and creating better work. That’s why it’s time to bring back calling it what it is and start promoting information literacy. Literacy is always the path to success, and we could all use some of that in our information-dependent lives and careers.

To do my share, this is the first in a series of posts in which I’ll highlight The Big6 approach to information literacy. I used the Big6 framework when I taught students at the university library, and I use a modified version today when I talk about 3 steps to better research. It helps organize what we need know about information literacy and offers a process for solving information-related problems that can be used by information-seekers of all ages and interests.

Here’s a snapshot of how The Big6 works and how it applies to finding and using essential information:

1. Define the task

• What do I need to know?
• What types of information do I need?

2. Create the strategy

• What are the possible sources for this kind of information?
• What are the best sources in this situation?

3. Find and use the sources

• Where are the sources located?
• How do I find the information I need in each of these sources?

4. Use the information

• How can I engage with the information?
• How can I extract the information I need?

5. Synthesize the information

• How do I organize and extract meaning in the information?
• How do I present the information to others or put it to use?

6. Evaluate the results

• How effective were these results?
• How efficient was the process ?

Look for future posts with more in-depth discussion for each of these six steps, how I use them for my investigations, and how you can apply them whenever you need information that you can rely on. Want to learn more? Check out my online courses.

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Fast forward several years and, after transitioning from market intelligence to background investigations and asset research, court records became a big part of my work. In addition to training with another investigator, I attended every conference session and webinar I could find on the topic, read all the books, and kept practicing. I eventually learned to work with the challenges inherent to online court searching, rather than wishing they didn’t exist.

It’s become easier over the years, and I’ve I learned a lot about how court records work and what it means for my workflow. Here are just some of the lessons I’ve learned:

“Court system” is an oxymoron – There’s nothing systematic about court searching. Here in the U.S., every state and local entity has its own court structure (compare state courts here) and their own way of saving, organizing, and sharing records. Some courts offer everything online through one simple search, while others offer no online access. And once you think you understand how things work, it will change. Try finding court sites through Google, but often the best approach is picking up the phone.

Sometimes you get more questions than answers – Online court records generally don’t include identifying information except for a first and last name. It gets confusing, especially with common names, so you’ll spend a lot of time verifying identities of individuals and companies named in the documents. Sometimes the records reveal new names – maybe a name variation or a lead on the identity of business partner. Allow time to follow up, or include recommendations for next steps in your final report.

It’s just a first pass – Online court records are a great place to start, but it’s not all there. When there’s no room for error, online searching will tell you where to look, but then it’s time to go offline. Remember, too, that not all legal problems make it to court, and the absence of court filings doesn’t tell you the whole story. You might need to look elsewhere, so make sure to keep an open mind.

Disclaimers are your friend – Dropped records, spelling errors, date limitations, no identifying information – the list goes on. Online court searching is not an exact science. You won’t find everything online, and sometimes you can’t verify what you do find, so it’s important for clients to know that. In your conversations and final report, explain what’s included and what’s not and how it affects what you can infer from your findings. Create disclaimer templates and run them by your attorney for approval.

It’s worth the effort – With all its challenges, online court records can reveal a lot about your subject and their associates. New names, patterns of behavior, hidden assets. It’s all there if you know where to look, so spend time learning and practicing. Go beyond the docket and dig into the initial complaint, motions, decisions, outcome, and appeals. Make sure you allow time to locate the documents, and consider hiring a legal expert to help you make sense of the findings.

Interested in brushing up on your online court searching techniques – and earning CPE credits in the process? Check out my courses on this and other topics.

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What are some things you can’t find online?

Human intelligence (HUMINT) – This involves going directly to the people who may have the answers you need. As competitive-intelligence expert Ben Gilad puts it, “Only human sources can provide commentary, opinion, feelings, intuition, emotions, and commitment.” Including HUMINT adds color and depth to our reports, and helps us fill the gaps.

What’s waiting to be posted – It takes people, time, and money to add a public record or article to a website after it’s been created, and sometimes there’s not much of that to go around. So, the property deed record you’d like to see? It may be sitting in someone’s in basket, or the agency that creates those records has made the decision to cut back on availability.

Redacted records – For people in certain professions (e.g., law enforcement, court system, etc.), exposing home addresses or other personal information through online records can be be risky. Many jurisdictions have responded by redacting records.The entire record might be missing or just a part of it, and it can be a problem for those of us with legitimate reasons for needing that information.

Non-public, personal information – When it comes to Social Security Numbers, driver’s license information, banking records, and other data protected by privacy laws, you definitely won’t find these on the open web. This is one of the advantages of working with a professional investigator, since, with a legitimate use, certain information may be available through specialized (and restricted) sources.

The story behind the story – With anything you find online, there’s usually a backstory. For a recent due diligence investigation I verified our subject’s degree through the usual channels. After speaking with their university graduate supervisor, though, I learned that he was considered the “best and brightest” in the professor’s long career of working with PhD-level students. That was useful info, since my client was about to invest a lot of money in this individual’s new venture.

What can you do about missing information?

Don’t assume – Just because you can’t find it on the web, the answers may still exist somewhere. In someone’s brain, to-do pile, or filing cabinet. Remember that online research is a first pass. The next step is to pick up the phone. You can cover a lot of ground by making some calls, and I’ve discovered that people are more than happy to point me in the right direction.

Explore alternatives – The answers may not come from the questions you or your client thought to ask. Is there another way to get to the same place? For example, instead of asking for banking records, which, with few exceptions, you won’t be able to (legally) obtain, try to get a sense of someone’s finances through open sources such as public records and social media. No clues from your subject’s social media? Try their spouse’s profile.

Hire a professional investigator – A PI license is essential for access to certain databases, especially those with personal, non-public information. PIs are also trained in identifying the best sources for every situation, eliciting information from others, and knowing what’s legal and what’s not (buying banking records online is not).

Online searching is a great place to start. For in-depth coverage, though, take some time to step away from the computer and find what’s missing.

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